研究发现：暗黑人格者更偏好同类伴侣，但暴力犯罪仍是择偶硬伤

从“罪犯情书”到择偶实验

人们通常认为择偶偏好善良、可信与合作，但现实中总有人被操纵型人格甚至暴力犯罪者吸引。研究第一作者Katharina P. da Silva告诉PsyPost，这项研究的起点是观察到著名罪犯在服刑期间收到大量情书，她由此追问：对社交上不受欢迎特质的吸引，是否可能有进化基础。

研究团队把问题拆成两种解释。其一是“同质性择偶”，即人们倾向选择与自己相似的伴侣，暗黑人格者可能更欣赏暗黑人格。其二是“吸引力副产品假说”，即人们并非被操纵或冷酷本身吸引，而是被恰好与暗黑人格同时出现的外貌、名气或财富吸引。研究试图在同一批参与者中同时检验这两种解释。

问卷部分：自评与偏好高度对应

研究者招募了400名18至60岁的巴西成年人，平均年龄约28岁，其中193名女性、176名男性，另有31人自我认同为非二元、travesti或不愿说明性别。由于后一组人数较少，涉及性别差异的统计模型只纳入369人。

参与者用12个条目的“Dirty Dozen”量表自评暗黑三联征，再用改编版本评价这些特质在理想伴侣身上的吸引力。结果显示，自评分数与对同类特质的偏好存在较强关联：马基雅维利主义约0.59，精神病态约0.66，自恋约0.69。在控制性别、性感觉寻求与刺激寻求后，参与者自身的暗黑特质仍是其偏好的主要预测因素。刺激寻求在单独比较中与暗黑偏好有弱关联，但纳入自身暗黑分数后这一关联消失。

作者认为这支持同质性择偶。不过，样本中大多数人的自评和理想伴侣评分都集中在量表低端，例如马基雅维利主义平均1.62、精神病态1.58、自恋2.45（1至5分），这种地板效应可能人为放大自评与偏好之间的统计相似性。

情境实验：善良仍然胜出

实验部分让参与者随机阅读六段假想人物描述，描述不涉及性别、年龄与种族，也不配照片，以避免外貌干扰。参与者随后评价自己愿意与对方进入短期或长期关系的程度，1分代表极不愿意，7分代表极愿意。

善良、乐于合作且在意他人感受的对照组平均得分5.92，远高于其他情境。仅有暗黑三联征、无犯罪记录者降至2.40。若再加上“曾实施人身攻击”，得分进一步降到1.52。把同一犯罪者描述为因袭击出名、富有或外貌出众，得分分别为1.46、1.49和1.60，与普通犯罪者情境没有统计差异。

da Silva总结说，尽管有证据显示部分人对反社会特质和犯罪者有某种吸引，但在择偶情境中，亲社会性仍然是远比其更受偏好的特质。她推测，人身攻击这一具体犯罪可能构成“硬伤”，其负面权重压过了名气、财富或外貌带来的加分。

研究还比较了短期与长期关系。总体上，参与者对短期关系的意愿略高于长期关系，男性在短期约会上的意愿略高于女性。但与作者预期相反，暗黑与犯罪情境在短期关系中并未获得额外优势，它们与亲社会情境的差距在短期和长期关系中相近。

与既有研究的分歧和限制

这一结果与2013年一项让女性评价虚构男性描述的研究不同，后者发现暗黑人格比普通人格更有吸引力；也与一项速配研究不同，后者发现自恋和精神病态与短期约会成功有关。作者指出，速配涉及真实面对面互动，魅力与肢体语言可能掩盖操纵倾向。

解释结果时需注意多项限制。研究测量的是偏好评分，而非实际选择的伴侣。Dirty Dozen量表在馬基雅维利主义和精神病态上的内部一致性略弱，问卷也未设置注意力检查题。研究者没有核实参与者是否认为附加的名气、财富和外貌具有吸引力，也没有确认各情境中的人身攻击是否被感知为同等严重。文字描述可能无法引发看到真实照片或接触高地位者时的自动情绪反应。

此外，所有附加名气、财富或外貌的情境都同时包含人身攻击，因此研究无法检验这些属性是否会让一个守法但善于操纵的人更有吸引力。样本为巴西网络便利样本，参与者受教育程度高于一般人群，主要经大学渠道和社交媒体招募，可能无法代表犯罪更常见环境中的人群。da Silva也指出，对犯罪记录者的吸引在一般人群中可能本就罕见，便利样本可能稀释了观察到的效应。

研究题为《择偶的暗面：同质性驱动对暗黑三联征的吸引，但反社会特质与犯罪行为的吸引力未因名气、财富或外貌而增强》，发表于《进化与人类行为》，作者为Katharina P. da Silva、Bruno H. Amaral、Marco Antonio C. Varella和Jaroslava V. Valentova。

People generally want a romantic partner who is kind and cooperative, yet some individuals are drawn to manipulative personalities and even violent criminals. A new study published in Evolution and Human Behavior suggests that preferences for these dark traits largely track people’s own personalities, with those higher in such traits rating them as more desirable in a partner. The study also found that a hypothetical partner described as manipulative and as having committed physical assault was rated as highly undesirable, and adding fame, wealth, or good looks did not make that person any more appealing.

When people look for a romantic partner, evolutionary biology suggests they should favor prosocial traits like kindness, trustworthiness, and cooperation. These qualities help build stable relationships and help ensure that both partners invest in raising children. Despite this general rule, some people are attracted to antisocial personalities, and at the extreme, to people who have committed serious crimes, a sexual attraction known as hybristophilia.

Public fascination with notorious offenders such as the American serial killer Ted Bundy helped inspire the new investigation. “The idea for this study came from observing the attraction to famous criminals, such as Ted Bundy, who famously received many love letters during his imprisonment,” study lead author Katharina P. da Silva told PsyPost. “This observation led me to question whether there might be an evolutionary basis for being attracted to individuals with socially undesirable traits, given that these traits could bring disadvantages to those who form relationships with them.”

To understand why someone would choose a partner likely to exploit or harm them, psychologists often examine the Dark Triad of personality. The Dark Triad is a cluster of three distinct but overlapping socially offensive traits: narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Narcissism involves grandiosity, entitlement, and a constant need for admiration. Machiavellianism is defined by strategic manipulation, deceit, and a belief that the ends justify the means, while psychopathy is characterized by callousness, impulsivity, and a lack of empathy or remorse.

These traits exist on a spectrum in the general population, meaning people can display everyday, non-clinical levels of selfishness and manipulation without being diagnosed with a personality disorder or committing crimes. Early evolutionary research into these traits suggested they might actually offer an advantage in the dating pool. For instance, a 2008 survey of college students found that men with higher Dark Triad scores tended to have more casual sexual partners and a stronger preference for short-term relationships.

Building on this idea, a 2013 experiment asked women to rate written descriptions of fictional men and found that the Dark Triad personality was rated as more attractive than a regular control personality. However, subsequent research questioned whether dark traits are inherently appealing or if they simply piggyback on other attractive qualities. The new study’s authors refer to this idea as the desirability by-product hypothesis, which proposes that people are not actually drawn to manipulation or cruelty itself, but rather to desirable traits like physical beauty, social status, or wealth that happen to appear alongside a dark personality.

Another competing explanation for the appeal of dark personalities is homogamy, also known as assortative mating, which is the tendency for people to choose partners who are similar to themselves. Under this view, manipulative or callous individuals actively prefer partners who share their worldview and lifestyle. For example, a 2016 study found that women who scored high in narcissism preferred male faces digitally altered to look narcissistic, though this self-similarity effect did not appear for Machiavellianism or psychopathy.

Da Silva, who holds a master’s degree in experimental psychology, developed the research in the Behavior, Evolution and Sexuality Lab at the Institute of Psychology at the University of São Paulo under the supervision of Jaroslava V. Valentova, with whom she and co-author Marco Antonio C. Varella also recently published a book chapter on Dark Triad traits and casual sex across cultures. Now a doctoral student at the Laboratory of Translational and Behavioral Neuroscience at the Federal University of São Paulo, she and her colleagues set out to directly test both homogamy and the desirability by-product hypothesis in a single study.

The researchers wanted to see whether attraction to Dark Triad traits is linked to a person’s own dark traits and risk-taking tendencies, and whether adding fame, wealth, or good looks to a violent criminal profile could make an antisocial partner seem desirable.

The researchers recruited 400 Brazilian adults between the ages of 18 and 60, with an average age of about 28. The sample included 193 women, 176 men, and 31 participants who identified as non-binary, identified as a Latin American trans-feminine identity known as travesti, or chose not to state their gender. Because the non-binary and travesti groups were small, the researchers excluded those 31 individuals from statistical models that specifically tested for gender differences, leaving 369 participants for those specific comparisons.

Participants completed a series of online questionnaires measuring their own personalities and behavioral tendencies. To measure Dark Triad traits, the authors used a 12-item survey called the Dirty Dozen, which asks respondents how much they agree with statements reflecting narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy on a 1-to-5 scale. Participants also completed an adapted version of this same scale to rate how desirable they found each of those 12 dark traits in a potential romantic partner.

To measure risk-taking and thrill-seeking, the researchers administered two additional questionnaires. One was a 10-item scale assessing sexual sensation-seeking, which measures a person’s desire for novel and varied sexual experiences. The other was the 12-item sensation-seeking portion of an impulsivity questionnaire, which measures the tendency to seek out exciting, risky activities.

For the experimental portion of the study, each participant was randomly assigned to read one of six short written vignettes describing a hypothetical person. The descriptions were kept completely neutral regarding gender, age, and race, and no photographs were used so that physical facial features would not accidentally bias the ratings. After reading their assigned profile, participants rated how willing they would be to enter a casual, short-term relationship and a stable, long-term relationship with that person on a scale from 1 (extremely unwilling) to 7 (extremely willing).

The first vignette served as a prosocial control condition, describing an intelligent, kind, and helpful person who enjoys teamwork and cares about how their actions affect others. The second vignette described a person with Dark Triad traits but no criminal record, portraying them as calculating, persuasive, and willing to do whatever it takes to get ahead because they believe the ends justify the means. The third vignette used this exact same Dark Triad description but added that the person had committed the crime of physical assault.

The remaining three vignettes tested the by-product hypothesis by pairing the Dark Triad and physical assault profile with a major desirable attribute. In the fourth scenario, the assault gained media attention, and the person became famous with a large social media following. In the fifth scenario, the person was described as wealthy and of high social status, able to post bail after the assault arrest. In the sixth scenario, the person was described as extremely physically attractive, drawing media focus for their good looks after being sent to jail for the assault.

When analyzing the personality questionnaires, the researchers found evidence consistent with the homogamy hypothesis. Across the board, participants who scored higher on Dark Triad traits rated those same traits as more desirable in a romantic partner. People’s own scores correlated with their preference for the same trait at about 0.59 for Machiavellianism, 0.66 for psychopathy, and 0.69 for narcissism, on a scale where 1 is a perfect relationship. Even when controlling for gender, sexual sensation-seeking, and thrill-seeking in a combined statistical model, a person’s own levels of Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism remained the primary predictors of their preference for those respective traits in a mate.

While sexual sensation-seeking and thrill-seeking were weakly linked to dark trait preferences in simple one-to-one comparisons, their influence disappeared once the participants’ own Dark Triad scores were accounted for. This suggests that thrill-seeking does not explain preferences for dark traits beyond its overlap with people’s own dark traits. As a further check, the researchers compared each participant’s preferences with the self-ratings of randomly paired participants and found that people’s preferences sat closer to their own scores than chance pairings would predict.

These findings align with research covered by PsyPost in October 2024, which examined real-world romantic couples rather than ratings of hypothetical profiles and similarly found that partners tend to share similar levels of Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy. The results are also consistent with a study covered by PsyPost in August 2024, which evaluated real-world couples and found that people with dark personalities feel more satisfied in relationships when their partners share similar levels of psychopathy and narcissism.

“It is worth noting that, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first evidence of assortative mating for antisocial traits in a Brazilian sample,” da Silva noted. “We hope these findings encourage further investigation into the underlying factors driving such attraction in Latin American populations.”

In the experimental vignette portion of the study, the desirability by-product hypothesis was not supported. On the 1-to-7 willingness scale, the kind, prosocial control profile received an average rating of 5.92, making it by far the most desirable option. When the profile switched to a calculating Dark Triad personality without a criminal record, average willingness to date the person dropped sharply to 2.40.

“The main takeaway is that, despite evidence showing some attraction to antisocial traits and criminal individuals, prosociality still remains a far more desirable trait in the context of mate choice,” da Silva explained.

Adding a history of physical assault caused desirability to fall even further, down to an average rating of 1.52. Pairing that profile with fame, wealth, or extreme physical attractiveness did not improve its appeal. The famous criminal received an average score of 1.46, the wealthy criminal scored 1.49, and the physically attractive criminal scored 1.60, none of which were statistically different from the plain criminal profile.

“Given the extensive literature supporting attraction to traits such as fame, high socioeconomic status, and physical attractiveness, it was an interesting surprise when the byproduct hypothesis was not confirmed,” da Silva said. “However, this finding suggests that the effect of antisocial traits combined specifically with the crime of physical assault may have acted as a dealbreaker, that is, a negative trait in a potential partner that carries more weight in attraction than any positive characteristics presented by them.”

The researchers also looked at whether these preferences changed depending on whether the relationship was casual or long-term. Overall, participants expressed slightly higher willingness to engage in short-term relationships than long-term ones across all profiles, and men gave slightly higher willingness ratings than women for short-term dating. Contrary to the authors’ expectations, however, the dark and criminal profiles gained no special advantage in the casual context; the gap between them and the prosocial profile was similar for flings and for stable relationships.

This general rejection of dark personalities is in line with a study covered by PsyPost in February 2025, which also used written vignettes of hypothetical partners and found that people generally prefer low levels of Dark Triad traits for both short-term and long-term dating. The results also differ from the 2013 experiment described earlier, in which women rated a fictional man with Dark Triad traits as more attractive than a control character. Similarly, the new findings stand in tension with a 2016 speed-dating study covered by PsyPost, which found that narcissism and psychopathy were linked to greater short-term dating success. That study involved real face-to-face meetings rather than written profiles, and in person, charm and body language might mask a person’s underlying manipulation.

As with all research, there are some caveats to consider when interpreting these findings. In the personality survey, most participants rated themselves and their ideal partners very low on the Dark Triad scale, clustering near the bottom of the 1-to-5 range. For example, average self-ratings were 1.62 for Machiavellianism, 1.58 for psychopathy, and 2.45 for narcissism, which creates a “floor effect” where the lack of high scores can artificially inflate the statistical similarity between self-ratings and partner preferences. The homogamy results also reflect stated preferences rather than the partners people actually choose.

There are also a few methodological details to keep in mind regarding the online survey tools and vignettes. The researchers noted that the brief 12-item Dirty Dozen scale had slightly weaker internal consistency for Machiavellianism and psychopathy than is ideal, and the survey did not include attention-check questions to weed out distracted readers.

The researchers also did not check whether participants saw the added fame, wealth, and looks as desirable, or whether they viewed the assault as equally serious across profiles. In addition, using written descriptions of beauty, wealth, and fame may not trigger the same automatic emotional reactions as seeing an actual photograph of a gorgeous person or interacting with someone of high status in real life.

The specific crime chosen for the vignettes, physical assault, may also help explain why the desirable traits failed to make the criminal profiles appealing, since violence may signal a direct threat to a partner’s safety. In addition, every profile with fame, wealth, or good looks also described an assault, so the study could not test whether those attributes would make a manipulative but law-abiding partner more appealing. Those profiles were also rated near the bottom of the scale, leaving little room to detect any improvement. Future studies could test whether non-violent offenses, such as financial fraud or white-collar crime, are more easily forgiven when a potential partner is wealthy, famous, or good-looking.

Finally, the study relied on a convenience sample of Brazilian internet users. Even though Brazil has high rates of violent crime overall, the participants were more educated than the general population and were recruited mainly through university channels and social media, so they may not reflect people in settings where crime is more common.

“It’s important to say that the use of a convenience sample may have limited the representation of individuals who are attracted to partners with criminal records, as this preference is likely rare in the general population,” da Silva added. “This could have diluted the observed effects of criminal behavior on mate preferences. Additionally, it is essential to remember that our research was performed in a Brazilian sample, and that no single sample can represent humanity. Also, this reinforces why it is so important to do research on diverse, ‘in-between’ populations such as ours, which are unfortunately still underrepresented in the literature, building a more robust evolutionary psychological science.”

Looking ahead, the researchers hope to explore whether these mating preferences shift in different social environments where aggressive, dominant behavior might be viewed by some as a practical form of protection or resource acquisition. “Future research could benefit from employing targeted sampling strategies (e.g., in high-crime areas or specific subcultures) to test whether the observed mechanisms are amplified in ecologies where the cost-benefit ratio of criminality is altered,” da Silva said.

The study, “Dark side of mate choice: homogamy drives attraction to dark triad, but desirability of antisocial traits and criminal behavior is not enhanced by fame, wealth, or looks,” was authored by Katharina P. da Silva, Bruno H. Amaral, Marco Antonio C. Varella, and Jaroslava V. Valentova.